Significance of Emotions in Leadership: A Study of Shakespeare’s King Lear and Othello Through the Lens of Rasa Theory
Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the literature of leadership and emotions through the lens of Bharatmuni’s rasa theory by examining Shakespeare’s Othello and King Lear as case studies. Although much of the existing literature focuses on the various attributes of leadership such as rationality, assertiveness, intelligence, power, flexibility etc., emotions form an inseparable part of it. It is extremely important for a leader to manage emotions effectively for successful leading. The first section of the paper discusses the importance of a leader and the role of emotions in leading. The second section adds a new dimension to the study of emotions by focusing on Bharatmuni’s rasa theory for the in-depth and objective study of emotions and the nuances involved in the complex process of leadership. The paper concludes with an examination of implications arising out of the imbalance and mismanagement of emotions.
Key Words: Leadership, Emotions, Rasa Theory, Bharatmuni, Shakespeare, King Lear, Othello
Introduction:
“From its infancy, the study of history has been the study of leaders-what they did and how they did it” (Bass and Stodgill 3).The concept of leadership is as old as civilization and forms an important part of the society. Harnessed by a passion to lead and garner support and trust from their followers, a leader works to overcome challenges and achieve common and shared goals. It has been defined by J.M. Burns defines Leadership as “The reciprocal process of mobilizing, by persons with certain motives and values, various economic, political and other resources, in a context of competition and conflict, in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by both the leaders and followers” (462). Leaders are supposed to be equanimous, logical and emotionally suppressed which is necessary for them to secure power and sovereignty. However, there is a false dichotomy that emotions impede logical decision-making. Though logic and reason being over-valued in the sphere of leadership, it is an undeniable fact that emotions form a part and parcel of reasons. Emotions are equally important for leaders for they help to monitor, organize, prioritize the information available as well as guide behaviour. As Martha Nussbaum asserts, “[w]ithout feeling, a part of correct perception is missing” (79).
Rasa Theory
Compiled by Bharatmuni around 4th century B.C, Natyashastra is a comprehensive study that discusses the various art forms like dance, acting and music. It is in the chapters sixth and seventh that the concept of rasa is delineated. The word rasa appears in Vedas and Upanishads where it meant soma juice, cow’s milk, liquor, and juice of plants etc., and has been compared to the nature of ultimate reality (Brahman). According to Bharatmuni, rasa is the appeal factor and the source of ultimate bliss forming an indispensible part of any work of art. He encapsulates the theory of rasa in Chapter Six as: “The sentiment is produced (rasa-nispattih) from a combination (samyoga) of determinants (vibhava), consequents (anubhava) and transitory states (vyabhicharibhava and sancharibhava)” (Ghosh 105) secured by the emotive association between a knowledgeable spectator and the dramatic performance. Bharata, in the same passage, further explains the concept with the help of an example: “as taste (rasa) results from a combination of various spices, vegetables and other articles, and as six tastes (rasa) are produced by articles such as, raw sugar or spices or vegetables, so the Dominant states (sthayibhava), when they come together with various other states (bhava) attain the quality of the sentiment” (Ghosh 105).
Rasa comprises of the following components:
William Shakespeare (1564-616), the world’s most quoted author, explores the diverse shades of human character-ambition, greed, madness, bravery and villainy. His plays are dominated by kings and queens exhibiting different styles of leading. His masterpieces have been investigated by critics all over the world but an intersection in terms of emotions and 0leadership will provide a better understanding of the nuances involved behind a leader’s decision-making process.
KING LEAR
“Meantime we shall express our darker purpose / Give me the map there” (1.i.36-37) says Lear marking royal entry amongst ‘senet’ and ‘coronet’ making it clear that he is the absolute sovereign with all the state powers vested in him explicitly displaying “arrogant absolutism” (Drakakis 53) or in other words the transitory emotion (vyabhicaribhava) of arrogance (avega). However, the very next moment, with such responsibilities on his shoulders, he takes quite an irrational decision to split up his vast kingdom on the basis of how much his daughters (Goneril, Regan and Cordelia) love him, an act of “stunning stupidity” (Corrigan59). Lear orders his daughters to profess their love for him: “Which of you shall we say doth us most? / That we our largest bounty may extend / Where nature doth with merit challenge” (1.i.51-53). Goneril, the eldest daughter, being the cunning one, feigns admiration for her father in high flown words saying that she loves him, “more than the world can wield the matter” (1.i.55). Hearing this Lear’s happiness knows no bounds (transitory emotion of joy (harsa) and consequently he bestows upon Goneril and her husband, the Duke of Albany a considerable part of the kingdom.
Then comes the second daughter, Regan, who is even more greedy than her elder sister and goes a step ahead to flatter her old and foolish father. Regan’s flattering response makes Lear, again, delighted and he rewards her. He is overcome by extreme joy listening to their apparently ceremonial words devoid of any real emotions. But Lear’s emotions are real, however, he reacts irrationally which is unbecoming of a leader. Finally comes the turn of the youngest daughter Cordelia. After giving Cordelia another chance to reconsider her answer, Lear, in a fit of fury, expressing the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of anger (raudra), divides his kingdom between the elder sisters.
Lear’s arrogance (garva) that stems out from being the absolute authority of Britain makes him blind to the reality. He is so overwhelmed with power that he is unable to see through the cunning and inauthentic behaviour that dictates his daughters, Goneril and Regan. Lear does not realize that love cannot be demanded especially with prerequisite conditions. An unexpected and honest truth from Cordelia shakes him to the bone. Unable to accept the truth, he banishes Cordelia relying on the absolute mercy of his elder daughters. This capricious decision proves to be disastrous for him and his entire kingdom. A decision overpowered by whimsical notions and strong emotions without carrying any rational thought is bound to yield negative results/ unrest.
As the scene progresses, Lear’s capricious decision is even contested by his most loyal Kent. But anger takes the better side of Lear and he refuses any advice from his subordinate. Instead he banishes Kent as a punishment for attempting to point out his mistake and speak on Cordelia’s behalf reflecting the transitory emotion (vyabhicaribhava) of arrogance (avega) and cruelty. Whitney and Packer in the book named Power Plays: Shakespeare’s Lessons in Leadership and Management observe “In the severing relationship between King Lear and the loyal Earl of Kent, Shakespeare: offers a powerful example of the risk a leader takes when he ignores the wisdom of a trusted lieutenant” (79).
Gradually the elder daughters begin to denounce their father’s actions, thus, abusing the very powers granted by their generous father. For example, Goneril as she comes to know that one of her attendants had been hit by the old king, she, displaying the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of anger (krodha), decides to give her father a silent treatment and even permits her servant to treat him in an ungracious manner. Lear’s Fool, on the other hand, tries to make him understand the consequences of his grave mistake by offering all of his kingdom to Goneril and Regan.
Lear, shocked and disappointed, at this unkindness curses Goneril and calls her a “detested kite” (1.iv.259) reflecting the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of anger (krodha) and the involuntary mental reaction (sattvikabhava) of tears (arsu). King Lear then decides to head towards Regan’s palace to find shelter and solace. But again to his utter disappointment, Regan and her husband Cornwall mistreat Lear’s servant, Kent (disguised as Caius). Their actions are severely condemned by Lear who exhibits the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of grief (soka) and the transitory emotion (vyabhicaribhava). Regan is indifferent to the ill-treatment meted out to her father and supports her elder sister. She advises her father to go back to Goneril and also reduce the number of his attendants to half. But Lear is extremely disturbed and utters curses upon Goneril refusing to go back to her expressing arrogance (garva) and cruelty (ugrata). Observing the behaviour of Goneril and Regan and going through extreme humiliation, King Lear now wishes to go to France and live with Cordelia overcome by the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of grief (soka) and the transitory emotions (vyabhicaribhavas) of dejection (visada) and depression (dainya). He is completely shattered:
LEAR: I prithee, daughter, do not make me mad.
I will not trouble thee, my child. Farewell. (2.iii.23-214)
And also when he says
LEAR: You heavens, give me that patience, patience I need!
You see me here, you gods, a poor old man
As full of grief as age, wretched in both (2.iii.266-268)
Lear’s mind is torn apart for it is hard for him to perceive and accept the unkind, cunningness and greed of his daughters. All of this forces him into madness (unmada). Though he is reunited with his loving daughter Cordelia, Lear’s health deteriorates. However, taken as prisoners by the English forces, Cordelia is hanged and Lear dies in grief.
OTHELLO
Othello is introduced in the second scene of the first act as a distinguished military leader who believes in protecting his potential public image and immaculate character. It is learnt that he is in love with Desdemona, the daughter of a senator, Brabantio, who eloped with him without her father’s consent culminating in their secret marriage. As a result, Brabantio is enraged but a chivalrous Othello does not feel guilty displaying the transitory emotional state (vyabhicaribhava) of contentment (dhriti) and the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of (utsaha). Maintaining his calm and tenacity while facing a distraught father, Othello asserts: “My parts, my little, and my perfect soul / Shall manifest me rightly” (1.ii.30-32). Othello out rightly refutes Brabantio’s claims that he has seduced his daughter through any magic power or abducted her without her consent. He gives a straight forward account of how they fell in love and that he won her heart through the essential goodness of his character, calibre, royal lineage and not any sorcery.
Meanwhile, the Duke of Venice enters the scene, seemingly worried (cinta) about an attack from the Turkish fleet. He assigns Othello to take over the defence of Cyprus and thwart the Turkish invasion and the latter accepts this responsibility readily. He puts forward his leadership responsibilities and the thought of protecting Venice from rivals weighs heavily upon his mind rather than the pleasures of a newly married life. Othello displays heroism (vira rasa):
OTHELLO: The tyrant custom, most grave senators,
Hath made the flinty and steel couch of war
My thrice-driven bed of down: I do agonize
A natural and prompt alacrity […]
With such accommodation and besort
As levels with her breeding? (1.3.229-238)
Earlier the play had also introduced, a sinister military official namely Iago, who vowed revenge from Othello. He is stung by the emotion of extreme jealousy (asuya) on account of him being slighted as the position he aspired for was given to Cassio. Iago is embarrassed by this decision as Othello, by virtue of his power and position, completely ruptures his (Iago’s) self-confidence and pride as well as a bond of trust between a leader and his follower. Iago takes this decision as a question on his professional capability which further intensifies his decision to take revenge. He, despite his strong recommendations, is overlooked without his knowledge or any valid reasons explained to him. But Iago is manipulative, emotionally sensitive and aware. He uses his strengths in a destructive manner. He masters the art of comprehending emotions in others and then exploiting them to his own advantage, thus, making them, without their knowledge, a partaker in his own game of revenge. Othello does not consider him as a promising candidate for the promotion illustrating arrogance (garva): “I have already chosen my officer” (I.i.7). Iago does not understand how to deal with such a humiliation. Hence, he is unable to contain his anger. Othello fails to realize the anticipation for promotion on Iago’s part. As a leader, he should have communicated his decision to Iago (not publically), sensitively addressed his resentment by offering him valid and honest reasons for not promoting him. Also Othello deviates from the conventional practice of promotion based on next in line which does not go down well with Iago. Consequently, deeply disappointed by Othello’s decision and filled with anger (krodha) and jealousy (asuya), Iago asserts that firstly that he is not the one who follows his leader blindly and secondly that he will take revenge for this passing over.
Act II opens with the floating emotion (vyabhicaribhava) of worry (cinta) in the general public at the impending Turkish attack which, however, transfers into a wave of happiness (harsa) as the attack comes to a halt owing to bad weather. The valorous leader Othello comes across as a passionate and sincere lover as well arousing the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of love (rati) when he meets Desdemona after facing a perilous tempest emerging victorious. However, witnessing this, Iago becomes more envious (asuya) of the moor and under the abiding emotion (sthayibhava) of anger (krodha) comments:
IAGO: […] the lusty Moor
Hath leap’d into my seat […]
And nothing can or shall content my soul
Till I am even’d with him, wife for wife. (2.2.295-99)
Later on, spurred by Iago, Cassio, in a state of intoxication, picks up a fight with Roderigo and Montano. At the same time, Othello appears on the scene and watching Cassio, behaving irresponsibly, gets enraged leading to the latter’s removal from his position much to Iago’s delight. But Iago’s evil design does not end here. Next, he coaxes Cassio to mend his mistake by making Desdemona plead his case to Othello. Apparently Iago’s plan is to sow the seeds of suspicion in Othello’s mind about Desdemona’s fidelity.
In ACT III Iago is successful as Othello, mad with jealousy (asuya) and suspicion (sanka) leading to the biding emotion (sthayibhava), agitation (avega) and depression (dainya), asserts:
OTHELLO: She’s gone, I am abus’d; my relief
Must be to loathe her. O curse of marriage!
If she be false, O! then heaven mocks itself.
I’ll not believe it. (3.3.267-279)
Iago, taking full advantage of his master’s age, cunningly uses the handkerchief which proves to be a sign of unfaithfulness for Othello and makes his suspicions even more concrete.
Othello fails to think rationally. A mere handkerchief is sufficient enough to prove his suspicions and overcome his love for Desdemona pointing towards his own insecurities. Although a dextrous warrior and an efficient leader, he puts immense trust in Iago, which points towards his deceasing intelligence and rational power. Chris Poulson et al. in the article “I am not what I am”- Destructive Emotions In An Organizational Hierarchy: The Case of Othello and Iago rightly assert: “Excessive trust may well lead to unexpected and negative outcomes” (237). Othello continuously refers to him as “honest Iago” which blocks his vision to see Iago’s real face thereby making him dependent on the latter completely. However, Othello at a point demands proof from Iago, for it is difficult for him to believe Desdemona’s infidelity. But Iago displaying the transitory emotion (vyabhicaribhava) of dissimulation (avahittha), manipulates him and gains sympathy by pretending that he has been truthful and honest enough to help his friend and protect him but sadly it was a mistake to be a well-wisher when the friend demands proof of his honesty. According to Whitney and Packer (2000) a leader must keep in mind that he “should be prepared to discover that he will have to promote some people over others- and fire some people. Any leader who thinks that he will be loved and honoured by all is fool” (84) thus commenting on the weakness of Othello’s leadership strategy.
Iago again lies blatantly to Othello that he witnessed Cassio clean his beard with the same very handkerchief. Othello, in response, vents out his anger (krodha) and disgust (jugupsa) and decides to kill Cassio and Desdemona.
OTHELLO: Damn her, lewd minx! O, damn her […]
I will withdraw
To furnish me with some swift means to death
For the fair devil. Now art thou may lieutenant. (3.3.476-479)
At the beginning of Act 4 the involuntary mental states (sattvikabhavas) of trembling (kampan) and fainting (pralaya) can be witnessed in Othello as Iago tells him that Cassio has slept with his wife Desdemona. This lie is sufficient enough to prove his wife’s disloyalty.
The final act (Act V), thus, presents the culmination of Iago’s sinister plot. Othello, under the influence of jealousy (asuya), ferocity (ugrata), agitation (avega) and the abiding emotion (sthayibhavas) of anger (krodha) and disgust (jugupsa) he chokes an innocent Desdemona to death despite her repeated pleas. Iago’s machinations are finally disentangled by Emilia who also lashes out at Othello. However, Iago stabs Emilia and tries to escape but Othello stabs him (not fatally). Othello realizes his mistake but it is too late now. Driven by guilt, he finally commits suicide.
CONCLUSION:
The fall of Lear takes place the moment he decides to divide his kingdom capriciously without any rational thought. As a leader, King Lear is extremely emotion-driven and whimsical who fails to see through the selfish nature and cold-heartedness of Goneril and Regan. He fails to manage his emotions in a tactful manner and arrogance takes the better side of him. As the play progresses, he suffers from extreme grief and depression. He acts irrationally and from a monarch with absolute powers ends up miserably alone, mad and with an unfulfilled desire to be loved and taken care of.
Othello, on the other hand, unintentionally creates an enemy in Iago, thus, pointing at his weak leadership style. Iago, being the master manipulator, takes advantage of him. A slight suspicion is enough to cloud Othello’s foresight making him extremely angry leading to his inability to comprehend the lies. His anger and jealousy at the imagined cuckoldry is baseless and effects his leadership leading to disastrous outcome.
WORKS CITED: