‘The Sacred and the Mystique’: A Study of the Leitmotifs of Hills and Rivers in Tribal Folklores from India’s Northeast
Abstract:
India’s northeast is an amalgamation of varied cultures and traditions. A study of the folklores of various tribes of the region highlight the prominence of nature in the lives of these simple people of the hilly terrains. A recurrent theme in the folktales, folk songs, legends and other forms of oral tradition is the significance of hills and rivers in the lives of the people. These hills and rivers take the form of gods or spirits and through these narratives influence the lives of common human beings. Usually, such stories are replete with moral themes and thereby, have become important documents for the tribes. Hills and rivers in these folklores are regarded as sacred objects of nature and are related to the mystique as well.
This study is an attempt to explore folklores of different tribes living in India’s northeast, particularly from Nagaland, Meghalaya, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh and analyze the leitmotifs of hills and rivers. While doing so, parallels will be drawn to the representation of hills and rivers in the poetry and fictional narratives of contemporary writers of the region. The purpose of the study is to reflect on the significance of nature in ancient oral tradition and investigate if tribal culture has any association with modern day ecological concerns.
Keywords: Northeast India, mountains, rivers, folklores, oral tradition
India’s northeast is a storehouse of varied culture and tradition. One of the most interesting aspects of the oral culture of the region is the prominence of nature in the tribal narratives. The sun, the moon, the sky, forests, trees, mountains, rivers, and lakes not only form the background of most of the stories, but are primary characters in these folklores. Storytelling forms a very important part of the culture of these indigenous people. For most of these tribes, the written language came to their society at a much later point of time. It is believed that “...the Khasi tribe of North-East India, are a great storytelling people: ‘telling’, because their alphabet is of very recent history, no older than when Thomas Jones, the Welsh Presbyterian missionary, introduced the Roman script in 1842, to form the essentials of the Khasi written word.” (Nongkynrih, Around the Hearth vii) As per the myths and beliefs of these tribal people, every object in nature is associated with a spirit. These spirits take the form of human beings in many of these narratives and reflect the varied nature of people. These tales play a dual purpose of reflecting the beliefs and tradition of the tribes as well as imparting moral values to the common village folks. Many of these folklores also emphasize the tribal people’s belief on the origin of these objects of nature. For these indigenous people, nature holds a prominent place in every walk of their lives. Nature not only provides them with food and shelter, but is also believed to be a part of their very being. Many tribes associate objects of nature with ancestor worship as they believe that the spirit of their dead ones rest in rivers, hills, trees, and so on. Yet another belief system of the indigenous tribes is the association of nature with several rituals during important occasions as well as everyday living. The hills, rivers and forest amidst which they live are also regarded as their brothers and sisters. This belief stems from the tribal folklores of bygone days when human beings lived in close association with gods, spirits of nature and animals. During that ‘golden era’, humans could talk to the different objects of nature and therefore, their relationship was special.
A common aspect of tribal folklores from various regions of India’s northeast is the prominence of narratives related to mountains and rivers. Rich in cultural symbolism, these hills and rivers take the form of gods and spirits and evoke the sense of sacredness in the life of the tribes. The geographical location of the ‘homeland’ of these tribes living in different parts of India’s northeast is also of relevance here. Hills and rivers are not merely landforms, but serve as an intrinsic part of the collective psyche of the people of the region. They are also part of several tribal pantheons and are therefore inseparable part of the very being of the various tribes. In a similar context, Rekha Shangpliang highlights the importance of forest in the lives of the Khasis and states – “The supernatural connotations of forest have occupied an important place in Khasi literature, Khasi legends and folktales and the life and culture of the people as a whole. This ‘sacred’ character of the forest finds expression in the customary practice of preserving sacred groves known as ‘Law kyntang’, which are held with high esteem even today.” (29) This similar emotion is applicable in the case of the tribal beliefs in the sanctity of hills and rivers too. The antiquity of these mountains and rivers, their sacredness and mystique in the folklores bring out their symbolism and significance in the lives of the people. This study is devoted to an exploration of the oral narratives of different tribes of Nagaland; the Khasis of Meghalaya; the Lepchas of Sikkim; and the Adis of Arunachal Pradesh and analyze the leitmotifs of hills and rivers in their stories. Several contemporary authors from India’s northeast have also written poetry and fictional narratives on these two important objects of nature which are connected with the lives of the people. This body of literature will form the parallel line of study in this work to understand the modern-day representation of hills and rivers in the arena of northeast literature. The purpose of the study is to reflect on the significance of nature in ancient oral tradition and investigate if tribal culture has any association with modern day ecological concerns.
It has been recorded in several folktales from India’s northeast that the heavenly bodies and other objects of nature have always provided human beings with the source of knowledge about their conduct and behaviour. Thus, tales about the Sun and the Moon, mountains, rivers, animals and birds which dominate the folktales can be seen to possess human-like qualities. It is from their behaviour, their situations and their ultimate fate that the tribal people drew inspiration or gave warning to their community members to pay heed to their way of life. It is in this connection that H.O. Mawrie comments about the significance of nature in the lives of the Khasis –
“A Khasi lives with nature and nature lives in him. When he thinks all the objects around him such as the animals on the surface of the earth, the winged creatures dominating the earth from above, the flowers on the ground and on the trees, the grass and the vegetation all around – he sees that they have each their peculiar and different lives; and they symbolize for him the tremendously variegated character of man himself.” (Mawrie 97)
In this context we see that the Khasi folktales about two hills (identified as brothers) and two rivers (identified as sisters) are very popular. The hills named U Lum Kyllang and U Lum Symper were believed to be the dwelling places of two powerful mountain spirits who were brothers. Endowed with human-like qualities, Kyllang was supposed to be very aggressive and warlike whereas his brother possessed a calm and gentle disposition. A fierce battle between the two, ensued due to the wayward ways of Kyllang, ultimately led to their separation. Similarly, the popular tale of the race between the two rivers, Ka Iew and Ka Ngot, also highlights the strain in sisterly relationships. The twin daughters of U Lei Shyllong, the god of Shyllong, these two goddesses are believed to have turned into two major rivers in the Khasi Hills. Similar to the two brothers, Kyllang and Symper, these two sisters also had different natures. Whereas Ka Iew was bad-tempered, noisy and arrogant, her twin, Ka Ngot was subdued and pleasant. The race between them ensued by Ka Iew again brings to the forefront the educational purpose of the Khasi folktales which is to teach its people the simple virtue of goodness. The Lepcha folktale of the two rivers, Tista and Rungeet, similarly portrays the two river spirits and the playful challenge that they undertake to race ahead of each other. These river spirits are believed to be secretly in love and when they decide to venture beyond the sacred environs of Kongchen Kongchlo (Mount Kanchenjunga), they promise to guide each other. However, the male river spirit, Rungeet, was competitive and wanted to win the race by all means, whereas, Tista (also known by the name of the river spirit, Rongnyu) was more subdued, milder and pleasant. When Tista wins the race, Rungeet is angered and that causes severe flooding in the valley. Ultimately, Tista is able to win over her lover and the two embrace, never to part again. The place where they unite is regarded as a sacred place of confluence by the Lepchas where they make offerings to the river gods. The folktale about the origin of river Tuichong in Tripura is similar in nature. Like the Khasi story of Ka Iew and Ka Ngot, Tuichong and her sister Muengi also possess different nature. Whereas Tuichong is loving and caring and transforms herself to a river to quench the thirst of her sister and later brings up her twin sons, Muengi understands the sacrifice of her sister much later.
Making use of objects of nature as the basis of instruction, these folktales impart important education on ways of life. Similar to the world of human beings, the world of nature also consists of positive and negative traits, and hence, the audience was easily able to relate to those tales. These folktales, thus, explain human nature and serve as a reminder to the people to judge their actions at all times. There is an inherent sense of morals and values attached to all these tales. The tale of the two rivers teaches that “...arrogance can never pay and that boastfulness leads to nothing but destruction.” (Mawrie 111) Similarly, the tale of Kyllang and Symper also serves as a “...reminder of the permanent misfortune that may befall a family where such quarrels take place.” (Mawrie 112) Given the educational purpose of these tales, the connection of nature to human beings serves the task of making it easy for the audience to relate the situations to their day-to-day life.
Hills and rivers in the tribal folklores are also related to popular beliefs in the spirit world. In the indigenous society, every object in nature is related to a spirit, sometimes benevolent, sometimes to be feared. The tribal people are firm believers in the supernatural and spirit world. M. Horam’s portrayal of the Naga belief in the spirit world as central to their very existence is notable in this regard. He states – “The universe to them was peopled with innumerable spirits the majority of whom are malignant….There are spirits in the forests, in the streams, in the bushes, in the fields and of course in the village itself….They can ruin crops, bring disease, famine, cattle epidemics, death of infants and expectant mothers and other such misfortunes.” (Horam, Naga Polity 119) In J.P. Mills’ translation of Lotha Naga folk tales, we find four stories of water spirits. The first one ‘Chungao and the Water Spirit’ is of a benevolent water spirit who is friendly with a man. It was due to her favour that he could bring up dried fish and cooked fish from the river without any problem. In almost a continuation of the former story, the tale ‘The Fishgmerman and the Water Spirit’ records how a fisherman was not harmed by a water spirit because he had spent his entire life by the streamside. When another man enters the territory of the spirit to gain similar favours, he is killed by the spirit. Another tale, ‘The Man who visited the Water Spirit’, documents how a man is given dried fish when he meets the water spirit at the bottom of a stream. When being greedy of receiving similar favours, he dives once again against the wish of the spirit, he does not come up again. On a slightly different note, the tale ‘The Water Spirit and the Boy’ is of a boy who was taken off by the water spirit. When the father gets hold of the hair of the spirit and threatens it, the spirit gives him dried fish, fresh fish and fish paste and brings back his son the next day harmless. The tales of the water spirit showcase the power of the spirit which is sometimes benevolent and at other times malicious.
Two folktales among the Khasis which centre on river spirits are also very popular. One titled, ‘Ren and the River Nymph’, narrates the story of a fisherman who receives the benevolence of a river nymph and eventually the two get married. The problem arises after the marriage as Ren was not comfortable in leaving the human world and settling down in the far recesses of the unknown territory to which his wife belonged. Ultimately, he is able to convince the nymph to live with him in his home as she was capable of surviving under water as well as above it. Ren and his old mother are provided warning that the broom should always be kept out of the nymph’s sight and the house had to be always kept clean. Disaster befalls on the first day of marriage itself when by hindsight, Ren’s mother forgets to keep the broom away and that leads to the departure of the nymph back to her original abode. Ultimately, Ren had to compromise and leave his mother and his home to be a part of the world that the river nymph belonged to. Another such story of a river nymph called ‘The Legend of Ka Lidakha’ explains the origin of the kings of Sutnga. A farmer, Woh Ryndih, catches a fish, cuts and cleans it and keeps it at home to be cooked the following day. The fish, a river nymph, turns to her original shape and starts keeping the hut of Woh Ryndih and cooking for him after he leaves the house every day. Eventually the two get married and are blessed with two daughters. After a period of time, the river nymph decides to go back to her world, her task in the human world being done. Being the descendants of a supernatural being, the daughters later on gave birth to several sons and daughters from whom the clans, Lihet Sutnga and Libon Sutnga, can be traced.
Hills and rivers in the tribal folklores of India’s northeast also serve the purpose of enabling us to reflect on modern day ecological concerns. Even though nature forms an integral part of life in the region, due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, over the years we have witnessed over-exploitation and abuse of natural resources. Also, with the growth of consumer culture, there has been a drastic change in the lifestyle of the once eco-friendly tribes into modern consumerist societies. It is in this context that Mamang Dai reflects about Arunachal Pradesh as a ‘hidden land’ and says,
“…the Adis practice an animistic faith that is woven around forest ecology and co-existence with the natural world. There are few road links in their territory. Travel to the distant villages still entails cumbersome river crossings, elephant rides, and long foot marches through dense forest or over high mountain passes….So far, isolation has been the best protection for the pristine forests and rich biodiversity of Arunachal Pradesh.” (Dai, Pensam xii)
The rivers and hills form the backdrop of most of the narratives from India’s northeast. Whereas Mamang Dai’s novel, The Black Hill, set in the mid-nineteenth century during the colonial regime takes a recorded historical event and weaves a gripping fiction around it, Easterine Kire’s books, like When the River Sleeps and Sky is My Father, bring to light the Angami culture and tradition of the bygone days. In novels such as these, the mountains and rivers are not mere landforms but a part and parcel of the very being of the tribes. In The Black Hills, the Mishmee hills, “a sparsely populated region of towering mountains and swift flowing rivers where three great clans of the Mishmee tribe lived” (Dai, Hills 6) is the most important backdrop without which the plot of the novel could not have taken shape. Similarly, in Kire’s When the River Sleeps, the river is the central metaphor and the book revolves around the protagonist’s aspiration to “wrest a stone from the heart of the sleeping river and take it home” as it is believed to “grant you whatever it is empowered to grant you. It could be cattle, women, prowess in war, or success in the hunt….That way you can make its magic yours. The retrieved stone is a powerful charm called a heart-stone.” (Kire 3) Thus, for these writers from India’s northeast, the rivers and mountains are not merely landforms, but important parts of their very culture and tradition.
In a similar way, the importance of these natural forms and the threat to the natural environment is found in the folktales of the region too. In a Lepcha folktale titled, ‘The Lake that Shifted’, the ecological concern of pollution of water bodies is well-represented. The story concerns one of the sacred lakes in Sikkim known as Lobding Tso. Sikkim which is hugely populated by believers in Buddhism is known to have four hundred and four sacred lakes and the people “believe these holy lakes are the sacred abodes of different deities and tsomens or water nymphs.” (Doma 108) The lake, Lobding Tso, is believed to be the abode of Pemachen Tsomen, the mother goddess of all water nymphs. Lepchas believe that once the goddess had appeared before a hermit-monk and sought his help to shift her place as she was greatly disturbed by the massive pollution inside her water body. According to popular legend, the lake shifted to a higher location and thence onwards is regarded as a sacred place by devotees. Such stories bring to light the ecological concerns of the modern-day world when human beings have abused nature to the fullest because of their selfish interests.
Contemporary literature from the region has also highlighted similar concerns. Poets like Temsula Ao and Kynpham Sing Nongkynrih celebrate the region’s ecological glory while vehemently protesting against the modern man’s ruthless ravages against nature. In her poem, “Lament for the Earth” (Ao 2013), Ao writes about the miserable condition of the earth’s natural environment. She says –
Alas for the river
It is muddy now
With the leaving
Of the two-legged animal
Who bleached her banks
And bombed her depths (45-50)
The lines are symbolic of Ao’s concern about the extreme depravity of human nature and the callous attitude of the modern man which has led to the pollution of our water bodies. Similar concern is seen in the poem “The Bald Giant” (Ao 2013) where Ao portrays the wretched condition of the hills as a result of deforestation. The poet compares the hill to a bald giant shorn of his “green cloak” and presents a moving picture of the lost glory of the greenery –
All that is now gone
All of him is brown
From base to crown
And his sides are furrowed
Where the logs had rolled
Once I thought him friendly
But now he looks menacing (19-25)
The selfish behaviour of the human race is presented in another poem titled, “My Hills” (Ao 2013), where again the poet presents a sad picture of the mountains which are lying bare now as a result of human exploitation. The bygone days when nature was revered and respected are represented in the following lines –
Once they hummed
With bird-song
And happy gurgling brooks
Like running silver
With shoals of many fish. (4-8)
However, this utopian image is immediately contrasted later with the imagery of the negative impact of the so-called development of human civilization –
The rivers are running red
The hillsides are bare
And the seasons
Have lost their magic (24-27)
Similar ecological concerns can be seen in the poetry of Kynpham Sing Nongkynrih. In his poem, “An Evening by the Source of the Umkhrah River” (Nongkynrih, Yearning 2011), the poet presents an idyllic description of the river Umkhrah as it flows through the hills. However, the ending of the poem is in sharp contrast with the imagery of fulfilment all throughout –
Nobody cares that this limpid water,
the bashful maiden, the tuneful pines
are rolling down to the city
where life itself wallows in the filth. (13-16)
The last lines of the poem raise concern about the deteriorating condition of the river due to increasing population, industrialization and urbanization. In another poem titled, “Kynshi” (Nongkynrih, Yearning 2011), the poet presents his anxiety at the deterioration of the river Kynshi and its surroundings. Lamenting the loss of greenery and the sad state of the green belt, he states –
Inevitably, however, here too,
time has left its ugly wounds
Pines like filth are lifted
from woodlands in truckloads.
Hills lose their summer green,
blasted into rocks,
into pebble and sand
and the sand is not spared. (36-43)
The importance and concern for conservation of the hills and rivers in the tribal folklores of the northeast as well as the poetry and fictional narratives of the contemporary authors of the region can be prominently noticed. This ecological concern is formed by a deep love for their ancient culture and tradition. Literature, therefore, serves the purpose of raising environmental awareness amongst the people of this region and urges them to ponder on the negative effects of urbanization and over-exploitation of nature. The rich oral tradition of the past and the contemporary writings together are attempts at keeping the indigenous culture alive and therefore, provide a warning to the consumer-centric modern-day world where the environmental ethics of the past are vanishing fast.
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