“If the whale lives, we live”: Interface of Ecology and Myth through an Ecocritical Reading of Witi Ihimaera’s The Whale Rider (1987)
Abstract
The Whale Rider by Witi Ihimaera provides the readers with an insightful observation about the interspecies bonding which is deeply embedded in the socio-cultural ethos of Maori Tribe. The paper seeks to explore how the narrative of the novel entangled in the stories of Maori mythology and legends remains profoundly intertwined with the notion of biodiversity and environmental conservation. The paper tries to illumine the saga of a robust Maori leader named Koro Apirana who desperately tries to hold on to Maori customs and traditions encountering the challenges of the contemporary world. His unflinching determination remains reviving the ties with ancient whales to save his tribe. The paper seeks to explore how the novel being a fantasy tale delineates some serious ecocritical insights. Therefore, the argument of the research paper explains how ‘the whale rider’ functions as a trope that navigates between past and present only to foreground and strengthen Maori community’s kinship with nature.
Key-words: interspecies- bonding, ecocritical, myth, biodiversity, environmental conservation.
Introduction:
William Rueckert is the first person who coined the term “Ecocriticism” in 1978 in the essay titled "Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism”. He defines ecocriticism as “the application of ecology and ecological concepts to the study of literature” (107). Set against the backdrop of planetary environmental concerns Ecocriticism is regarded as a theoretical genre imbued with the perspective to decode literary texts from ecological perspective. It is engaged with an aim to maintain harmonious coexistence among humans, nature and animals. In the essay “Literary Studies in an Age of Environmental Crisis” Cheryll Glotfelty has opined that “ecocriticism takes an earth-centred approach to literary studies” (xviii).
Maori Culture and Myths
The novel The Whale Rider by Witi Ihimaera purports to provide an insightful observation about the interspecies bonding which is deeply embedded in the socio-cultural ethos of Maori ethnic group. According to Sigid Markmann, “Maori literature of the 1980s defines itself essentially by reference to Maori philosophy and its system of values, with an intensity and self-confidence ultimately resulting in a change of perspective as in the cases of Keri Hulme, Patricia Grace and Witi Ihimaera, and in an increasing awareness of ethnocentrically biased documents and texts” (166). The narrative of the novel The Whale Rider is interwoven with the stories of Maori mythical Gods and the unflinching determination of a robust Maori Leader named Koro Apirana who desperately tries to uphold and transmit the values of the Maori tradition challenging the odds of modern times. The text's ecological concern is epitomized by the Maori tribe’s inextricable bonding with whales. Negotiating between the ancient time and modern time the narrative’s primary concern remains to revive the tribe’s affectionate ties with nature including its non-human species. But instead of employing ‘the whale rider’ as a mere mythical phenomenon, the novelist embraces this mythical 'whale rider' trope to provide a plausible context for refastening humans’ communion with non-humans. Defying the stereotypical connotation surrounding the nature of the rider adhering to normative male hegemony, Kahu, the child protagonist, ushers in the rise of a female leader who spearheads the untiring expedition of the Maori tribe by refastening their ties with their ancestor legends and whales. The author succeeds to restore the ancient connection resorting to the ploy of a magical fantasy. The Maori tribe living in Whamgara, on the east coast of New Zealand, is conditioned to live in harmony with nature. The visionary outlook contained in the line “If the whale lives, we live” (Ihimaera 100) resonates with a deep ecological connotation that humans should remain bound to the welfare of all other creatures of biosphere because every natural object has an inherent right to live on earth. This sense of oneness with the outer world perpetuates the ecocritical vision shared by Cheryll Glotfelty. As she contends, ‘all ecological criticism shares the fundamental premise that human culture is connected to the physical world, affecting it and affected by it’ (xix). The Whale Rider centres around the old myth circulated in Maori tribe about their esteemed ancestor Paikea.
In the section “Author Notes”, added to the the The Whale Rider book, Witi Ihimaera introduces readers to a myriad of interpretations surrounding the ‘Whale Rider’ myth. The whale rider is reckoned to be a legend esteemed on a par with the “Pacific version of Ulysses” (122). The name of the whale rider was Kahutia Te Rangi. When Kahutia Te Rangi was making a seaward voyage from Hawaiki to Aotearoa, his canoe overturned. Then he was saved by a bull whale who surfaced from the bottom of the sea to save Kahutia Te Rangi, the esteemed ancestor of Maori tribe. The whale brought Kahutia Te Rangi at Whangara, the east coast of New Zealand. Kahutia Te Rangi named the village Whangara Mai Tawhiti, which is shortly named as Whangara. People of Maori Tribe still worship Kahutia Te Rangi who gifted the people “with life-giving forces” (22) which imparted the lessons on “how man might talk with the beasts and creatures of the sea so that all could live in helpful partnership (23). The blessings of Kahutia Te Rangi also inculcated the lesson of oneness. Then Kahutia Te Rangi took the name of Paikea to honour the whale who brought him to Whangara. To commemorate his voyage to Whangara on the back of a whale, a carving of Kahutia Te Rangi on a whale at the apex of the meeting house at Whangara village is made by the indigenous Maori tribe. The Whale Rider revolves around the Maori Tribe’s association with whales. The central argument of the story revolves around reconnecting with other creatures of earth and imparts the lesson that interdependence between humans and animals is the dominant prerequisite to restore ecological balance. This deep ecological motif of the importance of interdependence between different organisms for survival can be formulated with reference to the dire desperation expressed by Koro Apirana when he tries to save the ancient bull whale in Whangara Beach. He utters, “If it lives, we live. If it dies, we die. Not only its salvation but ours is waiting out there” (Ihimaera 94).
From the initial chapters the author denotes that humans and nature should be allowed to bloom together. The symbiotic nature is depicted through the bonding between the bull whale and his golden master Paikea, also known as Kahtia Te Rangi. He is the founder of Maori community. The bull whale’s (the ancient whale) agony after losing his mother was relieved by the tune of the flute played by the golden human, Kahutia Te Rangi. From the very first chapter the bull whale is seen harking back to the ancient days ruminating over the unparalleled friendship he used to share with his golden master “The whale rider”. The melancholic tune played by the golden human reconnected with the sorrow of the bull whale whose mother had been savaged by sharks. So a bond had naturally been formed between the golden master and the bull whale. As the narrative goes, “The young whale drew nearer to the human, who cradled him and pressed noses with the orphan in greeting. When the herd travelled onward, the young whale remained and grew under the tutelage of his master” (8).
The four main broad sections of the novel are named after four seasons namely spring, summer, autumn and winter. This alludes to nature’s cycle. Nature occupies a central position in the indigenous people’s lives. Through Koro Apirana the readers are introduced to the customs performing which Maori people paid homage to the gods of Nature. The novel delineates how Maori Tribe’s customs remained in perfect harmony with nature. The tribe revered Lord Tangaroa, who was assigned the sea to rule over. Persons living in Whangara used to maintain a pact with him. The novel also chronicles the history of whales who were granted habitation in the sea and became protectors of the men. Indigenous Maori men who lost their path while navigating in the sea were guided by whales. Mariners were possessed with the power to talk to the whales. Religious ceremonies surrounding the sea god Tangaroa was also performed to strengthen the bond with nature. The Maori tribe used to offer the seaweed, fish or birds to commemorate Tangaroa’s contribution in the lives of Maori people. This religious ethos is actually invested with one of the salient features of ecocriticism where the act of nature-worship strengthens harmonious relationship of humans with nature. Koro Apirana remembers the ancient days when people strived hard to maintain ecological balance. To avert retribution from the sea-god Tangaroa they never overfished. The interfacing of ‘Tangaroa Myth’ with the customs religiously performed by Maori Tribe remains laden with ecological insight. The interaction between Tangaroa and Maori people through observation of religious rites represents humans’ ancient communion with inhabitants of ocean. The indigenous people’s act of bridling their greed speaks about maintaining biodiversity and ecological conservation in nature.
But with the advent of modern times the departure in the interconnection took place. The exploitation of natural resources namely fish etc took place. As Koro Apirana reminisces, “ But we have not always kept our pact with Tangaroa, and in these days of commercialism it is not always easy to resist temptation….There are too many people with snorkelling gear, and too many commercial fishermen with licenses” (39). The fissures in the trust emphasizes the breach of relationship between humans and whales. Koro Apirana also contends that man’s arrogance to “set himself above the Gods” (93) brought about the disruption and rupture in the kinship shared among humans, nature and animals. This completely goes in consonance with the perspective of ecofeminist Marilyn French who also vehemently satirizes the supremacy status enjoyed and perpetuated by man. In Beyond Power (1985) Marilyn French argues that “patriarchy is an ideology founded on the assumption that man is distinct from the animal and superior to it. The basis for this superiority is man's contact with a higher power/knowledge called god, reason, or control. The reason for man's existence is to shed all animal residue and realize fully his `divine' nature, the part that seems unlike any part owned by animals-mind, spirit, or con- troll” (341).
Koro Apirana in the novel elaborates the rupture in human-whale bond by reminiscing his childhood experience where whales were harpooned for meat and oil. The whale killing thus dissociated the beautiful bond shared between humans and animals. The dominance of humans over earth is showcased through humans’ anthropocentric mentality. As Koro Apirana recollects, “And even the shark, on those days, was a helper to man unless man had transgressed a sacred law. Until the time came when man turned on the beast which had been companion to him and the whale killing began” (31). These lines manifest anthropocentrism. Anthropocentrism “as an ideology functions to maintain the centrality and priority of human existence through marginalizing and subordinating nonhuman perspectives, interests, and beings” (Weitzenfeld and Joy 4). Humans’ considering themselves as the masters of the earth remains the cardinal reason for environmental hazards which puts other species’ existence at stake. Koro Apirana graphically presents the barbaric act of whale killing when he, “a boy of seven years’ age” (39) went out to sea with his uncle.
As the narration goes,
I can remember that when a whale was harpooned it would fight like hang. Eventually it would spout blood like a fountain, and the sea would be red. Three or four other boats would tow it ashore to the nearest place and cut it up and share out the meat and the oil and everything. When we started to strip the blubber off the whale in the whaling station, all the blood flowed into the channel. Blind eels would come up with the tide to drink the blood (40).
This inherent desire to assert men’s dominion over other species also reflects “speciesism”. Peter Singer observes that “most human beings are speciesists” (Singer 9). This also generates within humans the tendency to prioritize their needs and “to override the greater interest of other species” (Singer 9). This act of whale killing can also be critiqued from the viewpoint of ecofeminisism where animal killing is scathingly criticized. Ecofeminists Carol J Adams, Lori Gruen, Marti Kheel give vent to the notion of prohibition of animal meat-eating. Apart from past incidents the present scenario also presents gruesome details of anthropocentric brutality. Koro Apirana laments over the disruption of the kinship due to humans’ imperialistic and anthropocentric mind-set which bred arrogance and resulted in “to drive a wedge through the original oneness of the world” (93). The atrocious oppression of man towards whales is also seen in the site of Wainui beach where a big herd of whales performs a suicidal activity by stranding themselves on Wainui beach. While some men take advantage of the situation some Maori people resist to be speciesists. Five people hack away beats of meat from whale for commercial benefit. As the text goes, “The chainsaw has just completed cutting through the whale’s lower jaw. The men are laughing as they wrench the jaw from the butchered whale. There is a huge spout of blood as the jaw suddenly snaps free. The blood drenches the men in a dark gouting stream. Blood, laughing, pain, victory, blood” (79-80). Here the basic need to consume animal meat for survival is transgressed and hurting other species is celebrated for commercial purpose.
The inherent beliefs of Maori Tribe about saving whales are contrasted with the speciesist mentality of the people (represented by the gory brutal act of five men) who are using the whale for meat. The Maori community empathises with the wounded whales in Wainui beach. The whales are considered family members by them. They nurse them and try to heal their wounds. The Maori People’s love for whales are exquisitely presented in those lines.
It was that sequence of human butchery, more than any other, which triggered feelings of sorrow and anger among the people on the Coast. Some would have argued that in Maori terms a stranded whale was traditionally a gift from the Gods and that the actions could therefore be condoned. But others felt more primal feelings of love for the beasts which had once been our companions from the Kingdom of the Lord Tangaroa. Nor was this just a question of one whale among many; this was a matter of two hundred members of a vanishing species. (80)
Old Maori citizens empathise with their ancient companions and try to nurse them. Kahu’s uncle Uncle Raiwri along with his friends try to help the whales writhing in pain. Raiwiri narrates the effort of the Maori citizens to save the stranded whales. Even senior citizens extend their support to caress the wounded and stranded whale. The saying “Talk to the whales/They understand” (83), that encourages the helpers to nurse the whales actually reflects the primordial bond that Maori community used to share with whales.
Another incident which showcases the bonding of Maori People with the whales is the suicidal activity performed by the ancient bull whale at Whangara beach. The importance of myth is reinforced by this incident. As Guerin observes, “Myths are by nature collective and communal; they bind a tribe or a nation together” (160). In Koro Apirana’s desperate attempt to push the bull whales back into the sea the importance of tribe’s intimate and innate bond with their ancient companion is reiterated. As Koro Apirana contends, “…and if we have forgotten the communion then we have ceased to be Maori” (93). It shows how in the advent of modernization they still are rooted to their Maori Culture. It shows how a kinship is formed between Maori Tribe and non-human animals. This actually postulates the thought of “vasudaiva kutumbakam” where every one in the world remains united as a family. He apprehends that if the ancient bull whale is not returned to the sea the future of Maori tribe also remains at stake. This proves the “deep ecological” belief that every natural entity is important to maintain ecological equilibrium and biodiversity. Every living and non-living object is entitled to live on earth, irrespective of its utility to humans. As postulated in one essential deep-ecological principle:
“The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on earth have a value in themselves…These values are interdependent of the usefulness of the nonhuman world for human purposes” (Naess 49).
The text with its Maori mythical characters conforms to the notion of ecological harmony. Paikea , the ancestral forefather of Maori tribe was gifted with the power to talk to animals. According to Koro Apirana, “In this way, man, beasts and Gods lived in close communion with one another” (93). The text refers to the Maori mythic gods to inculcate the lesson that dependence between all creatures are necessary to protect the existence of every species. The refrain of the religious incantation cited at the end of most chapters i.e. “hui e, haumi e, taiki e” which means “join all together, bind all together, let it be done” corresponds to the deep-ecological phenomenon of embracing all organism in nature.
Effects of Man-made Pollution on Other Non-human Species
The whales’ state signifies the changing dynamic of man-whale relationship. In the “prologue” to the novel the whales are seen waiting for the advent of humans. But in chapter nine they are seeking protection against humans. The blue whale with his herd is seen to avert the clutches of the most frightened predator- the human race. The The man-made pollution also endangers the homestead of the underwater animals. The effect of gigantic tidal waves has claimed the lives of seven calves. The deep sea-trench called Hawaiki, once regarded as the sanctuary for whales, now becomes vulnerable to the fatal blows of radioactivity caused by human beings. The undersea radiation caused by the testing of weapons at Moruroa also wreaks havoc on whales’ lives. Human-made disasters (here shown through the radiation in the underwater and corrosive impact of radioactivity) have wreaked havoc on the cocooned existence of the whales. The whales are scared to realize the consequences of under-sea radiation. It leads to the death of seven young calves. The bull whale, leader of the whale herd, also feels threatened. As the narration goes, “He was afraid of the genetic effects of the undersea radiation on the remaining herd and calves in this place which had once, ironically, been the womb of the world” (43).
The endangered existence of the whales corresponds to the the Maori Tribe where Koro Apirana like the Bull Whale is desperately trying to reclaim his community’s position. The plight of the whales signifies that Maori tribe is also undergoing tough challenges from the modern world where their existence has to be reassured by embracing their own Maori culture. In In the later part of the novel, the bull whale is seen to lead his herd through the frozen waters of Antarctica. But a wall of sold ice prevents them to move ahead. The ice around them starts to crack and crash. The old bull whale sees a vision of his golden master and the herd led by him moves towards the golden-master’s island, Whangara. The nostalgic days of friendship between whales and man is contrasted with the sad plight of whale as they strand themselves at the Wainui beach to commit suicide. This incident metaphorically evokes humans’ negligence in protecting the world surrounding them. The journey of the whales in the sea for a protected haven showcases their endangered existence. It portrays how pollution, radio-activity lead towards environmental degradation. It also displays the indisputable truth that humans are responsible for environmental degradation. But the author also envisions a future where every species can cohabit safely. The utter realization of the ancient bull whale after being driven into the sea by Kahu, clearly conveys this optimistic vision. As the bull whale desires, “Then let everyone lie, and let the partnership between land and sea, whales and all humankind, also remain” (118).
Ecofeminist Traits in The Whale Rider
The term ‘Ecofeminism’ was coined by Francois d’Eauborne in her book Le Feminisme ou la Mort in 1974. Ecofeminism tries to make a connection between the oppression of nature and the subjugation of women. Karren Warren in Ecofeminist Philosophy argues,
According to Ecofeminists, trees, water, food production, animals, toxins, and more generally, naturism (i.e., the unjustified domination of nonhuman nature) are feminist issues, because understanding them helps one understand the interconnections among the dominations of women and other subordinated groups of humans (“other human Others”), on the one hand, and the domination of nonhuman nature, on the other hand. (1-2)
Radical feminist draws a parallel between the subordinate existence of female and animals. In “Dismantling Oppression: An Analysis of the Connection Between Women and Animals”, Lori Gruen asserts that “ The categories “woman” and “animal” serve the symbolic function in patriarchal society. Their construction as dominated, submissive “other” in theoretical discourse (whether explicitly so stated or implied) has sustained human male dominance” (61).
Kahu, the great granddaughter of Koro Apirana, is a potential contender for the leadership of Maori Tribe. As Kahu is a girl she is relegated to the periphery of social circle. The story which is also an odyssey of Kahu is laden with the the cultural misogynistic norms where patriarchal society forces the women to remain on the periphery. She is cowed down by a set of rules observed strictly under the surveillance of Koro Apirana. This demeaning mind-set is palpable in Koro Apirana’s behaviour. This excerpt from the novel is apt to be mentioned here. ‘A girl’, Koro Apirana, our grandfather, said, disgusted. I will have nothing to do with her. She has broken the male line of descent in our tribe.’ (10) Koro Apirana finds it almost impossible to “reconcile his traditional beliefs about Maori leadership and rights with Kahu’s birth” (12). According to Maori custom, leadership is hereditary and normally the mantle of stewardship is passed down from the eldest son to the eldest son. But Kahu, being the eldest daughter, is not entitled to inherit the stewardship. The gender binary which deprives women from contending for stewardship has scathingly been criticized against the background of the story.
Koro Apirana is regarded to be the descendant of Paikea, the ancient ancestor of Maori Clan. As his grandson Pouroungi has failed to gift his grandfather a male heir so Koro Apirana is in a search to pass the stewardship to a suitable Maori boy for the survival of his Maori community. But the author Witi Ihimaera champions female empowerment by endowing Kahu with the potentials to become the saviour of the Maori Tribe. She reconnects with the surrounding fellow non-human species particularly whales by talking to them. She is the reincarnation of the ‘Paikea’ himself. That’s why she is endowed with the rare magical gift of her progenitors, i.e. the power to speak to all fellow creatures. The whale’s response to Kahu’s calls, Kahu’s re-enacting the role of the ancient Paikea in the end foreground the woman-nature relationship. Kahu’s act of calling out to orca whales by copying the sound she has learnt from a movie showcases her magical characteristic phenomenon to interact with whales. She warns the deadening orca whales and they dive away. Perhaps the woman- nature bond can be foregrounded with Kahu’s attempt to ululate “eerie sounds in her throat” (35) to connect with whales in her childhood. She communicates with whales and other creatures of the ocean namely dolphins etc. The gruelling tale of whale-killing narrated by Koro Apirana makes Kahu immediately relate with the whales and she cries out in sorrow. This is also a feature of ecofeminism where women are considered more compassionate towards the pain of other inhabitants of nature. Kahu feels saddened to hear the tragic killing of the whales in Koro Apirana’s story. The narrator recounts, “I heard Kahu weeping at the doorway. I edged over to her and when she saw me she put her arms around my neck” (41).
Kahu effortlessly forges a bond with other inhabitants of the sea too. When Koro Apirana wants to take a test to choose the fittest Maori boy for the future stewardship he throws a carved stone into the midst of the ocean. When no one dares to dive in to retrieve the carved stone Koro Apirana gets disappointed. But Kahu, without the knowledge of Koro Apirana, retrieves the stone with the help of dolphins. The correspondence between Kahu and other sea animals takes place effortlessly in this search. Ecofeminists always glorify women’s nature of being more perceptive towards other species’ pains, happiness etc. Women are also considered closer to nature. The gesture of the dophins by directing Kahu towards the reef from where Kahu retrieves the carved stone proves the bonhomie women share with animals. This unique trait of befriending animal is considered to be an inherent quality in women by ecofeminists. As Rawiri, the narrator as well as Kahu’s uncle narrates, “They were dolphins. They circled around Kahu and seemed to be talking to her. She nodded and grabbed one around its body. As quick as a flash, the dolphins sped her to another area of the reef and stopped. Kahu seemed to say, ‘Down here?’ and the dolphins made a nodding motion” (Ihimaera 72). Kahu is fondly accompanied by dolphins in her journey to retrieve the carved stone thrown into the ocean by her great grandfather. As the text reads, “She picked something up, inspected it, appeared satisfied with it, and went back to the dolphins. Slowly the girl and the dolphins rose towards us. But just as they were midway, Kahu stopped again. She kissed the dolphins goodbye . . .” (72). The dolphins also prove to be Kahu’s guardian angels as she is saved from a dark lustrous kelp in the midst of the ocean by dolphins. As the narrative goes, “… but when she was found the dolphins that were guarding her sped away with happy somersaults and leaps into the air” (116). The burial of her birth-cord in front of the meeting house at Whangara by Nany Flowers is used as a metaphor to showcase women’s inherent union with earth. It symbolically reiterates woman’s association with her birth-place. Here the act of burying the birth cord of Kahu in the soil of Whangara village can be seen as an ecofeminist trait. The bond between culture and women is re-established through this act. As Nanny Flowers says, “No matter where you may go, you will always return. You will never be lost to us” (22). Towards the end of the novel Koro Apirana urges the womenfolk of the community to extend their helping hands to push the giant bull whale back into the sea. Koro Apirana who earlier debars Nanny Flowers to gather Maori womenfolk to provide help shouts out later saying, “Rawri , go tell your Nanny Flowers it is time for the women to act the men” (97). His acceptance of help from women represents the advent of a changing scenario. In the end readers find that the ancient bull whale mistakenly considers Kahu as his old master, Kahutia Te Rangi, the founder of Maori Clan. In the Whangara Beach, by climbing on the back of the bull whale Kahu communicates with the whale and motivates it to move out into the sea. The whale with its herd consisting of female and young whales descends back to the ocean. By saving the herd of whales she also succeeds to save her Maori tribe. Her act reiterates the symbiotic relationship between humans and whales which is invariably juxtaposed into the Maori Tribe’s customs. The ending of the novel succeeds to alter the androcentric vision harboured by Maori people by choosing Kahu as the leader who reclaims the Maori clan’s long-cherished kinship with whales. She is the blessed spear leapt from Paikea’s hand “to flower when the people are troubled and it is most needed” (4).
Conclusion:
Kahu, the reincarnation of Paikea, strengthens the community’s ties with their ancient companions, the whales. The Maori culture with its diverse customs succeeds to convey the deep-ecological message of protecting the environment around us. By taking recourse to myths the narrative perpetuates the perception harboured by ecofeminists that women share a strong affinity towards nature and its inhabitants. Myth is used here as a dynamic trope. It transcends the barriers of time to reconnect the Maori Tribe with their ancient companion “whales” and revive the ancestral bond they used to share between them. ‘The whale rider’ is a mythical trope that navigates through the past and present only to foreground and strengthen indigenous Maori people’s kinship with nature.
Works Cited
Jayeeta Nag, Aliah University, West Bengal. Email id: jayeetanag@gmail.com